Sodium as an Alternative to Lithium Batteries
Rechargeable lithium batteries, first developed by Stanley Whittingham in 1970 and first used commercially by Sony in a camcorder in 1991, have dominated the battery market for decades. Their high energy density—about 150 to 350 watt-hours per kilogram—has been a major reason for their widespread use. Lithium mining is concentrated in three countries: Australia, Chile, and China, which account for 47%, 24%, and 16% of global supply respectively. However, much of this lithium is then sent to China, which manufactures about 75% of the world’s batteries.
CATL, China’s largest battery manufacturer, has invested $1.4 billion over the past decade to develop sodium battery technology as an alternative to lithium. The company has recently received an order for 60 gigawatt-hours of sodium batteries—enough to charge every smartphone on Earth at the same time. By comparison, CATL shipped 122 gigawatt-hours of lithium batteries across all of 2025.
Lithium offers higher energy density because of its stronger electrical potential, about 3.2 to 4.2 volts, and because it fits well between graphite layers in the anode. Sodium ions are larger and therefore cannot be used with graphite in the same way. Instead, sodium batteries use hard carbon, which is heated to around 1400°C to form the anode. Hard carbon originally absorbed moisture from the air, but recent improvements have made it hydrophobic. As a result, sodium batteries can now be mass-produced with an energy density of around 175 watt-hours per kilogram.
Sodium batteries also offer several advantages over lithium batteries. They are less prone to fire risk, can charge fully in about 15 minutes, and can last for more than 10,000 charge cycles—around three times longer than lithium batteries. They also perform well in extremely cold conditions, operating down to -40°C, whereas lithium batteries can lose up to 40% of their capacity at 0°C. CATL claims sodium batteries could reach a target cost of about $19 per kilowatt-hour, compared with current lithium battery costs of roughly $55–70 per kilowatt-hour.
Conclusion
Lithium is unlikely to be replaced overnight. Instead, sodium batteries are more likely to be used in electric vehicles either on their own or alongside lithium batteries. Smaller devices, such as mobile phones, will probably continue using lithium for the near future. As a result, Australia’s lithium mining industry is unlikely to be significantly affected for some time.